Answer & Explanation:Please ONLY bid if you can do that. I already got 0/10 for this assignment. I’ve got a second chance to make it right. Its an emergency, ive got a tutor”working” fpr 3 days, now he is asking fpr an extension till Sunday, I NEED IT TODAY, BY THE END OF THE DAY.Counterargument PaperThis paper assignment expands upon your Week One Assignment and prepares you for the Final Paper. The expansion is to learn to improve one’s argument after investigating and fairly representing the opposite point of view. The main new tasks are to revise your previous argument created in Week One, to present a counterargument (an argument for a contrary conclusion), and to develop an objection to your original argument. ( you should discuss: is torture permissible?I will provide the first assignment I wrote and later I will provide you the feedack) Here are the steps to prepare to write the counterargument paper: Begin reviewing your previous paper paying particular attention to suggestions for improvement made by your instructor. Revise your argument, improving it as much as possible, accounting for any suggestions and in light of further material you have learned in the course. If your argument is inductive, make sure that it is strong. If your argument is deductive, make sure that it is valid. Construct what you take to be the strongest possible argument for a conclusion contrary to the one you argued for in your Week One paper. This is your counterargument. This should be based on careful thought and appropriate research. Consider the primary points of disagreement between the point of view of your original argument and that of the counterargument.Think about what you take to be the strongest objection to your original argument and how you might answer the objection while being fair to both sides. Search in the Ashford University Library for quality academic sources that support some aspect of your argument or counterargument.In your paper,Present a revised argument in standard form, with each premise and the conclusion on a separate line. Present a counterargument in standard form, with each premise and the conclusion on a separate line.Provide support for each premise of your counterargument. Clarify the meaning of the premise and supporting evidence for the premise. Pay special attention to those premises that could be seen as controversial. Evidence may include academic research sources, supporting arguments, or other ways of demonstrating the truth of the premise (for more ideas about how to support the truth of premises take a look at the instructor guidance for this week). This section should include at least one scholarly research source. Explain how the conclusion of the counterargument follows from its premises. [One paragraph]Discuss the primary points of disagreement between sincere and intelligent proponents of both sides. [One to two paragraphs]For example, you might list any premises or background assumptions on which you think such proponents would disagree and briefly state what you see as the source of the disagreement, you could give a brief explanation of any reasoning that you think each side would find objectionable, or you could do a combination of these. Present the best objectionto your original argument. Clearly indicate what part of the argument your objection is aimed at, and provide a paragraph of supporting evidence for the objection. Reference at least one scholarly research source. [One to two paragraphs]See the “Practicing Effective Criticism” section of Chapter 9 of your primary textbook for more information about how to present an objection.For further instruction on how to create arguments, see the How to Construct a Valid Main Argument and Tips for Creating an Inductively Strong Argumentdocuments as well as the video Constructing Valid Arguments.For an example of how to complete this paper, take a look at the following Week Three Annotated Example. Let your instructor know if you have questions about how to complete this paper.helpful material: https://bridgepoint.equella.ecollege.com/curriculum/file/c5a7b281-fd78-4118-ae03-69a16080cf7f/1/PHI103%20How%20to%20Construct%20a%20Valid%20Main%20Argument.pdfhttps://bridgepoint.equella.ecollege.com/curriculum/file/b23d1682-2e85-4139-a7bf-a5b0e7d59097/1/PHI103%20Tips%20for%20Creating%20an%20Inductively%20Strong%20Argument.pdfhttps://ashford.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/Constructing+Valid+Arguments+Video/0_qqlvduicExample: https://bridgepoint.equella.ecollege.com/curriculum/file/5da35e8b-5f9e-4dcd-a2a7-a282f7d13c73/1/PHI103%20Week%20Three%20Annotated%20Example.pdf
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9
Logic in Real Life
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Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Use the standard argument form to construct an argumentative essay.
2. Describe how to strengthen an argumentative essay.
3. Identify elements of the Toulmin model of argumentation and compare and contrast them
with the elements employed in the standard argument form.
4. Apply the principles of accuracy and charity when confronting disagreement.
5. Identify and employ qualifiers, hypotheticals, and counterexamples.
6. Identify the differences in meaning between logical terminology and everyday uses of the
same terms.
7. Explain the various applications of logic in other fields.
319
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Section 9.1
The Argumentative Essay
In this chapter we will step back and take a broader view of our subject. So far we have been
focused on the nuts and bolts of arguments. We have learned about the elements that constitute them, different kinds of inference, and the many ways that arguments can go wrong.
However, the real importance in learning the tools needed to construct arguments lies in our
ability to apply them to arguments we encounter in real life. Logic and critical thinking are
powerful tools for improving our reasoning, but to apply them successfully requires practice
and attention. In this chapter we shall start by going over the necessary steps for constructing
your own arguments. Next we will examine how to examine other arguments critically, as well
as how to confront disagreement. Finally, we will look at some ways in which arguments and
logic are used in various professions for very practical ends.
9.1 The Argumentative Essay
In addition to serving as the framework for identifying claims, evaluating arguments, and
defending your positions methodically, the standard argument form has another very practical use as the framework for writing argumentative essays. Simply put, an argumentative
essay is a genre of writing that presents a logical and methodical defense of a thesis based on
supporting research. It includes the recognition of the opposing position to the thesis and the
presentation of a successful rebuttal. The argumentative essay format is introduced in some
university courses (for example, it is the standard writing style in philosophy), but the format
has broad applications when it comes to building arguments generally.
Arguments are the fundamental tool in several occupations. They are the frame for legal
briefs, law review articles, opinions by Supreme Court justices, as well as public policy analyses and predictions by economists. They are the machinery employed for methodical commentaries by reporters and political pundits presented in the news media. Politicians may
use arguments when they make a pitch for our votes.
Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock
Whether or not you realize it, everyday reports of
your work to peers or higher-ups may require you to
formulate an argument. Starting from the standard
argument form, you can write an essay that helps
you defend things such as a larger allocation of
funds for your department.
However, the use of the argumentative
essay is not restricted to these occupations alone. Many of us are called on to
present arguments in this way, even if
not explicitly. Your boss may ask you to
present an argument, although she is
not likely to put it that way. She is more
likely to ask you to “encourage everyone” to do something (for example, get
a flu shot, come to work on time, or not
access social media while working),
rather than to “present an argument”
that will persuade others. However,
the request is still essentially a request
to develop an argument. If you needed
to request a raise, this, too, would
essentially require an argumentative
essay, whether in spoken or written
form. Outside of the workplace, argumentative essays might take shape in
conversations with a friend or loved
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Section 9.1
The Argumentative Essay
one, letters to the editor, job applications, project proposals, bank loan dossiers, and even in
love letters and marriage proposals. A convincing, structured argument comes in handy for
many occasions.
It is important to note that argumentative writing is different from persuasive writing. An
argumentative essay about the importance of getting a flu vaccine would not only examine
the reasons for doing so, but would likely weigh the pros and cons, examining why getting a
vaccine is a good idea. On the other hand, a persuasive essay on the same topic would explicitly focus on trying to get the reader to get a vaccine. Persuasive writing includes elements
that are intended to motivate and persuade an audience in ways that may go beyond the
boundaries of logic, such as passion or emotion. For example, an argumentative essay can
convince us that a habit is bad, but it often is not enough to motivate us to change the habit.
Persuasive writing tries to bridge the gap between recognizing that we should do something
and actually doing it. Arguments are still central to persuasive writing; you cannot get someone to change a habit they do not think they should change. You can think of persuasive writing as argumentative writing with extra elements added.
In order to turn an argument into an argumentative essay, we will first need to examine both
the structure of the standard argument form and the framework of an argumentative essay.
As shown in Table 9.1, the argumentative essay inverts the standard argument form so the
writer can inform the reader of the objective at the outset of the essay. Note that we call the
main claim the “conclusion” in the standard argument form, but in an argumentative essay it
is called the “thesis.”
Table 9.1: Standard argument form versus argumentative essay framework
Standard argument form
Form applied to argumentative essay
Premise
Premise
Conclusion
Thesis (the equivalent of the conclusion in standard argument form)
Premise
Premise
With this initial structure in place, the argumentative essay needs a few additional elements.
First, it needs a starting section that introduces the problem for which the thesis is a response.
Second, each premise needs to be elaborated on and supported. Third and finally, the essay
must address objections in order to show that the argument can withstand scrutiny. The basic
structure of an argumentative essay is determined by the introduction of the problem, the
thesis, and the premises supporting the thesis. We will examine these three elements in the
rest of this section and the remaining elements (clarification and support, objections, rebuttals, and closings) will be discussed in the next section.
The Problem
The problem section of an argumentative essay is its introductory section. The main objectives of the problem section are to present the specific subject matter and the problem that
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The Argumentative Essay
Section 9.1
motivates the thesis defended in the paper. Introducing the subject matter allows the reader
to understand the context for the paper. The focus of the section should be the presentation
of one clearly defined problem within this subject matter. Therefore, the bulk of this section
must provide a clear picture of the particular position, event, or state of affairs that you, as
the author, find problematic. If your subject matter is global warming, for example, and you
want to support efforts to control it, then addressing global warming as a whole would be too
broad. It would be better, for example, to identify whether you want to take a position with
regard to what individuals can do, what businesses can do, or what whole governments can
do to control global warming. Another way to narrow the problem would be to address a particular source of global warming that you find most problematic (for example, car emissions,
specific commercial pollution such as waste dumping from factory farms, or deforestation).
Narrower problems are likely to be more clearly defined, and your research is therefore more
likely to strongly support your position. Additionally, the more specific you are regarding the
problem you are addressing, the easier it will be for you to formulate your thesis.
The Thesis
The problem section of the argumentative essay should end in the formulation of the thesis. The thesis is the
claim being defended in the argumentative essay and is equivalent to
the conclusion in the standard argument form.
Precision is of the utmost importance
in the thesis because even very similar
theses will require different premises.
Being clear about exactly what you
are defending will help you keep your
argument streamlined and focused
on demonstrating your thesis. Consider, for example, these three similar
theses:
•
•
•
Getting a flu shot will help you
not get the flu.
You should get a flu shot.
Get a flu shot.
ilyarexi/iStock/Thinkstock
When developing a thesis, you must be precise in
your wording and clear about the exact nature of
your argument. Precision and clarity will allow
you to focus on premises that truly support your
position.
In a sense, each of these theses is aimed at the same result. But even though they are very
similar, they require different premises. Let us take a closer look at each.
“Getting a flu shot will help you to not get the flu” is the narrowest candidate for a thesis of the
three. If this is your thesis, all you need to do is appeal to studies regarding the effectiveness of
flu shots. For this thesis, you do not need to talk about the flu shot’s cost, potential side effects,
or even availability. Your claim is just that flu shots reduce the chance of getting the flu. You
do not need to, and should not, address any issues that go beyond that. The reason for this
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The Argumentative Essay
Section 9.1
is twofold. First, writing should always be focused. This is essential for clarity and to avoid
confusing the reader about what is being addressed. In the case of argumentative essays, the
thesis sets the parameters for what will be discussed in the body of the essay. Second, the
premises offer reasons for the thesis. If we start adding reasons that are not directly relevant
to the thesis, then the essay will lack clarity and will fail to convince the reader.
“You should get a flu shot” is a broader candidate for a thesis. The fact that flu shots reduce the
chance of getting the flu is part of what you will want to argue, but it is not enough. To show
that your reader should get a flu shot, you need to consider the pros and cons of doing so and
show that the pros substantially outweigh the cons. Here it is critical to address the issues of
side effects, cost, availability, and any other factors that directly bear on whether getting a flu
shot is a good idea. You may even want to bring up the idea that by reducing the overall prevalence of the flu, flu shots protect more people than just the person getting the shot.
“Get a flu shot” crosses the line from an argumentative thesis to a persuasive one. A successful
essay with this thesis will motivate the reader to get a flu shot, rather than simply demonstrating the benefits of doing so. Thus, the thesis must not only address why getting the shot is
a good idea, but also try to tackle issues that keep people from getting the shots—issues such
as fear, lack of time, misinformation, or just apathy. Notice that “get a flu shot” is not a claim,
so it cannot function as the conclusion of an argument. In a persuasive essay your thesis is not
the same as the conclusion of your argument; the argument you develop is just part of how
you develop your thesis. If you find yourself tempted to use a thesis that calls for action in an
argumentative essay, try to reformulate the thesis as one that could be the conclusion of an
argument in the standard form. You can then construct an argumentative essay for this new
thesis and then add motivational elements to it.
As you can see, forming your thesis clearly is a key part of writing a successful essay. The argument you build in your essay must be tightly aimed at supporting its conclusion.
The Premises
Just like in the standard argument form, in argumentative essays the premises are the reasons that support the thesis. You should start developing your premises by listing a few of
your main reasons for your conclusion. The best way to do this is to put your thesis in the
form of a question. For our flu shot thesis, that question could be: Why should your reader
get a flu shot?
Suppose that you come up with three reasons: It will help prevent your reader from getting
the flu, it will help keep others from getting the flu, and flu shots are cheap. We can now
assemble the argument by putting these three reasons as premises in the inverted standard
argument form, along with the thesis:
Thesis: You should get a flu shot.
Premise 1: Getting a flu shot will help keep you from getting the flu.
Premise 2: Getting a flu shot will also help protect others from the flu.
Premise 3: Flu shots are cheap.
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The Argumentative Essay
Section 9.1
In sketching the basic premises of your argument, you have automatically developed the basic
structure or skeleton of your argumentative essay. This is better than starting with one vague
idea and then letting your thoughts flow freely and aimlessly.
The premises of your argument now indicate major sections of your essay. Accordingly, they
should appear as the leading sentences for their respective sections. If your essay is short,
each premise will be the topic sentence for a paragraph. If your essay is long, each premise
will function as a thesis statement for its section.
When you are writing an essay longer than just a few paragraphs, you can repeat the process,
asking what reasons there are for accepting each of the premises. Once you give the reasons
why a premise is true, you will have the makings of a new argument for the premise in question. That is, you create an argument whose conclusion is one of the premises of your original
argument. Such arguments are called subarguments or secondary arguments. The conclusion of a secondary argument, being a premise of the original argument, is called a subconclusion or secondary thesis. A secondary thesis is not the main thesis of your paper, but it
is the thesis of a secondary argument supporting a premise of your main argument. With the
inclusion of secondary arguments, a fuller defense of your thesis about flu shots might look
like this:
You should get a flu shot. (Main thesis)
Getting a flu shot will help keep you from getting the flu. (Premise/secondary thesis)
•
•
•
Flu vaccines create an immune response that develops antibodies against the flu.
People with the right antibodies are less likely to suffer from a disease.
Studies show that people who have had the flu shot are less likely to get the flu.
•
•
Flu is transmitted from person to person.
The fewer infected people someone is exposed to, the lower his or her chance of
getting infected.
Getting a flu shot also helps protect others from getting the flu. (Premise/secondary thesis)
Flu shots are cheap. (Premise/secondary thesis)
•
•
•
Flu shots normally cost about $10.
Some places offer free flu shots.
Medicine for the flu is more expensive than the shot.
This complex argumentative essay structure now provides a skeleton for a much longer essay.
There is more to do, of course, but by starting with a structure for your argumentative essay,
you ensure that your essay is well organized and focused on its thesis.
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The Argumentative Essay
Section 9.1
Practice Problems 9.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
Which of the following is a difference between the standard argument form and that
of the argumentative essay?
a. In argumentative essay form the conclusion is presented last, whereas standard
argument form does not present a conclusion.
b. Standard argument form includes premises, whereas argumentative essay form
does not.
c. In standard argument form the conclusion is at the end of the argument,
whereas in essay form the conclusion is presented at the beginning.
d. The conclusion in standard argument form is generally stronger than the conclusion in argumentative essay form.
You are writing a paper about the effectiveness of for-profit education. You claim in
your paper that “for-profit education provides an equally rigorous academic experience as that of nonprofit education.” This statement would be which part of the
argumentative essay?
a. thesis
b. support
c. secondary argument
d. standard form argument
e. problem
You are writing a paper in which you claim minor drug offenses should not result in
prison sentences but in jail time and rehabilitation. In the paper, you make the claim
that “an article in contemporary criminology demonstrates that placing petty criminals into prison for small crimes leads those people to become hardened criminals
due to the conditions in those prisons.” This statement would be which part of the
argumentative essay?
a. thesis
b. support
c. secondary argument
d. standard form argument
e. problem
You are creating an argument that people in affluent countries have a duty to aid
those who are starving or dying from treatable illness in other countries. Which of
the following best represents the problem that is being addressed here?
a. Helping others is important, especially when some have more than others.
b. Those who do not help others are morally inept.
c. The problem is whether or not people live in the United States or a place where
people are poor.
d. The problem is whether or not people must help others when they have more
resources.
(continued)
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The Argumentative Essay
Section 9.1
Practice Problems 9.1 (continued)
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
You are creating an argument about whether or not pornography is healthy or harmful for people to view. Which of the following would be the best thesis for a formal
paper (though you might not agree with it)?
a. Pornography is evil and will lead to the degradation of society.
b. People who watch pornography are pedophiles.
c. Pornography is enjoyable for those who view it.
d. Pornography is harmful because it distorts images of female sexuality.
e. Pornography is harmful because people’s children can view it.
Which is a secondary thesis that relates to the primary thesis that “citizens need to
become less reliant on oil”?
a. Installing large-scale solar farms can help fuel the energy needs of large cities.
b. Finding more oil reserves will provide energy for the future.
c. Farming techniques continue to improve.
d. Planting trees can contribute to more oxygen production.
Which is a primary thesis that relates to the secondary thesis that “there must be
more exploration of oil reserves in the oceans”?
a. Finding more oil reserves in mountainous regions will provide energy for future
generations.
b. The Indian Ocean is largely unexplored.
c. In order to maintain current energy usage, there …
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