Answer & Explanation:Prior to beginning this discussion please read the required articles “Gender and Schooling” (pp. 229-234), “Organizational Learning” (pp. 235-240), and “The Adult Development of Cognition and Learning” (pp. 241-246) in your required text.Based on your resources this week, apply skeptical inquiry to a brief discussion about how gender plays a role in the learning process and academic success. What examples of this have you experienced or heard about in your own life? Explain the theoretical perspectives of organizational learning as a proponent of political ideologies. Describe how an organization’s inability to learn to learn can affect performance. What interventions do you believe could be applied to online training environments that would facilitate the learning process? Apply the concept of learning through adulthood to your own past academic success and/or failures. Do you personally capitalize on your past experiences? How? Do you capitalize on the feedback given to you by mentors, classmates, and/or instructors? If so, how? Your initial post should be 450 to 600 words in length and thoroughly discuss each of the elements in the prompt.
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LEARNING AND
COGNITION IN
EDUCATION
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LEARNING AND
COGNITION IN
EDUCATION
EDITOR
VIBEKE GR VER AUKRUST
Faculty of Education
University of Oslo
Norway
Amsterdam • Boston • Heidelberg • London • New York • Oxford
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Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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Copyright ã 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved
Material in the text originally appeared in the Encyclopedia of Education, edited by Penelope Peterson, Eva Baker, Barry McGaw
(Elsevier Limited 2010)
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Catalog Number
A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN: 9780123814388
For information on all Elsevier publications
visit our website at books.elsevier.com
PRINTED AND BOUND IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
09 10 11 12 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
PREFACE
The 3rd edition of The International Encyclopedia of Education appeared recently, with articles having a comprehensive
view of up-to-date knowledge and a global perspective, relevant to anyone who is concerned about education. While the
Encyclopedia is primarily meant for libraries, we do believe that research overviews written by distinguished scholars in
their areas of specialization should be made available to larger groups of readers. This volume presents a selection of
articles on learning and cognition from the Encyclopedia. Leading researchers have been asked to review critically and
present in an easily understandable manner the current state of knowledge in their fields of expertise and have put much
effort into drafting, writing, and revising thorough and balanced overview articles intended for a broad readership,
spanning parents, policy makers, students, teachers, and researchers who want to be updated on areas outside their
particular realm of specialization. The result of their work is a comprehensive overview of the major research in learning
and cognition, offering a source of reference for readers who want to obtain an introduction that is authoritative without
reducing or understating the complexities and uncertainties that characterize most of the available knowledge.
In the last few decades, there has been a growing interest in learning and cognition. There is an increasing
understanding among teachers as well as policy makers that to improve educational outcomes a major focus should be
on learning and transforming, and what makes students change, learn, and acquire knowledge. Obviously, this is an
enormously challenging task involving perspectives from brain research and neuroscience as well as from research
addressing the individual, social, technological, institutional, and cultural aspects of learning and cognition. The authors
of this volume come from a variety of academic disciplines from several universities around the world, but they share an
interest in how issues of learning and cognition can be made relevant to and useful for education.
As editor of the Learning and Cognition section in the Encyclopedia, I identified the key domains and concepts in the
field of learning and cognition that had both a strong research base and high relevance to education and recruited notable
researchers to cover them. Many of the articles in this volume have been chosen from the Encyclopedia’s section on
learning and cognition (while there are also a few articles from other sections), addressing issues ranging from
neuroscience bases of learning to cross-cultural perspectives; from self-regulated learning to learning as inquiry and
cooperation; from problem solving and knowledge domains to learning in specific contexts and throughout the ages; and
from attention, memory, and intelligence to relationships between cognition and emotion. Language (reading and
writing) is essential to cognitive processes and to learning in and outside schools and is covered from a variety of
perspectives. While this handbook offers a broad spectrum, clearly not every educationally relevant topic in the field of
learning and cognition is included. For example, readers who are interested in learning and knowledge building in
particular areas such as the learning of history, math, or music are referred to the Encyclopedia.
The scholars contributing to this volume present a diversity of research approaches to learning and cognition. A
sincere ‘thank you’ to all the authors who, within the format and guidelines they were offered, have put much effort into
presenting in a thorough and readable way the knowledge base of their research area. In doing this, they have also
demonstrated why research on learning and cognition, which acknowledges the complexities of these processes, is so
crucial to the field of education and to student outcomes.
Vibeke Grøver Aukrust
(ã 2011, Elsevier Limited. All rights reserved.)
v
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CONTENTS
Preface
v
Contents
vii–ix
Contributors
xi–xii
LEARNING AND COGNITION: INTRODUCTION
Cognition: Overview and Recent Trends
J Wiley and B D Jee
3
Neuroscience Bases of Learning
M H Immordino-Yang and K W Fischer
9
Learning in a Cross-Cultural Perspective
L-F Zhang and R J Sternberg
16
COGNITION AND LEARNING: THEORY
Connectionism and Learning
T R Shultz
25
Self-Regulated Learning and Socio-Cognitive Theory
P H Winne and A F Hadwin
34
Vygotsky and Recent Developments
J V Wertsch
40
Theoretical Bases of Computer Supported Learning
S R Ludvigsen and A I Mørch
46
Personal Epistemology in Education
I Bråten
52
Learning in a Sociocultural Perspective
R Säljö
59
Situative View of Learning
A Collins and J G Greeno
64
COGNITION: RECENT TRENDS
Attention in Cognition and Early Learning
M Heimann, T Tjus, and K Strid
71
Cognition and Emotion
F Pons, M de Rosnay, and F Cuisinier
78
Memory
S Magnussen and T Brennen
85
vii
viii
Contents
Intelligence
R J Sternberg
92
Concept Learning
S J Unsworth and D L Medin
99
Problem Solving and Human Expertise
T J Nokes, C D Schunn, and M T H Chi
104
Problem Solving and Reasoning
R E Mayer
112
Knowledge Domains and Domain Learning
L Maggioni and P A Alexander
118
Metacognition
L Baker
128
LEARNING: RECENT TRENDS
Learning Strategies
C E Weinstein, J Jung, and T W Acee
137
Technology and Learning
B Means and J Roschelle
144
Learning as Inquiry
S R Goldman, J Radinsky, S Tozer, and D Wink
154
Cooperative Learning
R E Slavin
160
LEARNING – LANGUAGE, READING, AND WRITING
Language and Literacy in Educational Settings
V G Aukrust
169
Neuroscience of Reading
U Goswami
179
Learning to Read
M S Burns and J K Kidd
185
Reading Comprehension: Reading for Learning
C E Snow
192
First Language Acquisition
N B Ratner
198
Second Language Learning
J S Arnfast, J N Jørgensen, and A Holmen
205
Writing, Early
B E Hagtvet
212
Writing, Advanced
R Andrews
220
LEARNING IN CONTEXTS AND THROUGHOUT THE AGES
Gender and Schooling
L Yates and J McLeod
229
Organizational Learning
P-E Ellström
235
The Adult Development of Cognition and Learning
E A L Stine-Morrow and J M Parisi
241
Contents
ix
Lifelong Learning
J Field
247
Classroom Discourse and Student Learning
L Hemphill
254
Learning Outside of School
T Nunes
260
Index
267
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CONTRIBUTORS
T W Acee
Texas State University – San Marcos, San Marcos,
TX, USA
P A Alexander
University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
R Andrews
University of London, London, UK
J S Arnfast
University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen S, Denmark
V G Aukrust
University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
L Baker
University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore,
MD, USA
T Brennen
University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
I Bråten
University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
M S Burns
George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA
M T H Chi
Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
A Collins
Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
F Cuisinier
University of Paris Ouest, Nanterre, France
M de Rosnay
University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
P-E Ellström
Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
J Field
University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
K W Fischer
Harvard University Graduate School of Education,
Cambridge, MA, USA
S R Goldman
University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, USA
U Goswami
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
J G Greeno
University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
A F Hadwin
University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
B E Hagtvet
University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
M Heimann
Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden;
The Swedish Institute for Disability Research, Linköping,
Sweden; The Norwegian Network for Infant Mental
Health, Oslo, Norway
L Hemphill
Wheelock College, Boston, MA, USA
A Holmen
Aarhus University, Copenhagen NV, Denmark
M H Immordino-Yang
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
B D Jee
Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
J N Jørgensen
University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen S, Denmark
J Jung
The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
J K Kidd
George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA
S R Ludvigsen
University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
L Maggioni
University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
S Magnussen
University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
R E Mayer
University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
J McLeod
The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
xi
xii
Contributors
B Means
SRI International, Menlo Park, CA, USA
D L Medin
Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
A I Mørch
University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
T J Nokes
University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
T Nunes
University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
J M Parisi
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Champaign,
IL, USA
F Pons
University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
J Radinsky
University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, USA
C E Snow
Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge,
MA, USA
R J Sternberg
Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA
E A L Stine-Morrow
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign,
Champaign, IL, USA
K Strid
University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
T Tjus
University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
S Tozer
University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, USA
S J Unsworth
San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
C E Weinstein
The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
N B Ratner
University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
J V Wertsch
Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
J Roschelle
SRI International, Menlo Park, CA, USA
J Wiley
University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
R Säljö
Göteborg University, Göteborg, Sweden
D Wink
University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, USA
C D Schunn
University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
P H Winne
Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
T R Shultz
McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
L Yates
The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
R E Slavin
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
L-F Zhang
The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
LEARNING AND COGNITION:
INTRODUCTION
Cognition: Overview and Recent Trends
Neuroscience Bases of Learning
Learning in a Cross-Cultural Perspective
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Cognition: Overview and Recent Trends
J Wiley, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
B D Jee, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
ã 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
All processes of thought, conscious and unconscious, fall
into the realm of cognition. These processes operate by
manipulating information-laden mental representations,
which are either retrieved from memory or constructed
from sensory information. In this way, the mind can be
understood as an information processor, continuously
adding to its repertoire of mental representations as
well as producing overt physical behaviors. The study of
human cognition thus becomes the study of the informationprocessing characteristics of the mind: What is the nature
of the representations? How are they manipulated? How
much information can be active at once? Cognitive researchers are concerned with discovering such facts about
cognition, with the overarching goal of explaining human
behavior in its various forms.
The study of human cognition is relevant to many fields,
and researchers from several disciplines have contributed to
our understanding of the mind. These disciplines include
psychology, philosophy, linguistics, artificial intelligence,
anthropology, education, and neuroscience. In fact, many
cognitive researchers are multidisciplinary, simultaneously
working in a variety of fields, and interdisciplinary, integrating aspects of the different disciplines.
The growing field of cognitive science was born out of
the perspective that cognitive research must span multiple
disciplines. However, less than 50 years ago, the study of
cognition was largely considered unscientific, at least
among many psychologists in North America. To understand the current approach to the study of cognition, it is
important to consider its origins, as well as its obstacles. It
is not the goal of this article to provide a detailed historical
review of inquiries into human cognition (for such a review,
see Gardner, 1985). Rather, we focus on the relatively recent
emergence of the information processing framework that
permeates contemporary cognitive science, and consider
various major areas of cognitive research.
The Cognitive Revolution
The modern approach to the study of human cognition
was forged by a series of events in the mid-twentieth
century, known as the cognitive revolution. While scholars
continue to debate whether the cognitive revolution truly
qualifies as a scientific revolution, the era certainly marks
an important shift in psychological theory and methodology, especially for psychology in North America. In the
first half of the twentieth century, experimental psychology in North America was dominated by behaviorism,
which generally disavows the use of mentalistic explanations of behavior. Mentalistic terms, such as belief and
desire, were branded as superfluous and unscientific, and
removed from accepted terminology. Behaviorism came in
a variety of forms, including theoretical behaviorism and
methodological behaviorism. The methodological behaviorist did not necessarily dismiss the existence of mental
constructs, but would argue that psychological science
should not include such unobservable entities. Theoretical
behaviorism went further, holding that mentalistic constructs could be reduced to overt behaviors. Under this
view, remembering a certain stimulus, like a sugar cube or
a foul-tasting liquid, amounts to producing a specific
learned behavior in response to it. Rather than building
explanatory theories, behaviorism had the goal of describing relationships between reinforcements and observable
behavior. Such descriptions were, according behaviorism’s
founding father, Watson, as far as experimental psychology
could and should progress.
The apparent scientific rigor of behaviorism played a
large role in its rise to prominence in psychology. However, to many American psychologists of the mid-twentieth
century, it became increasingly apparent that limiting
psychology to a science of behavior would be inadequate
for explaining learning and higher-order processes of
problem solving, reasoning, and decision making. Evidence for this inadequacy came from various sources,
including a central research area in behaviorism, animal
learning. For example, studies finding that rats could
quickly learn an association between ingesting salty water
and illness or an association between a certain noise and a
shock, but had difficulty learning other pairings of the same
elements (salt with shock or noise with illness), seemed to
defeat the notion that learning is purely a result of experiential factors. The behaviorist approach could also not
explain instances of creative cognition where novel responses are generated.
It would be incorrect to assert that the decline of
behaviorism in American psychology was immediate, or
due to any single set of events (Miller, 2003). Indeed,
behaviorism was widely debated and defended throughout the 1960s and into the 1970s in various areas of
psychology. In addition, the shift from behaviorism to
cognitivism that marks the cognitive revolution in American
psychology was influenced by developments outside
3
4
Learning and Cognition: Introduction
of America. For example, the Swiss psychologist Jean
Piaget argued that the organization of the human mind
is shaped by biological factors, while Russian psychologist
Lev Vygotsky stressed sociocultural influences. Besides
advancing new theories of psychological development,
these researchers provided examples that psychology
could maintain its scientific rigor without the constraints
of strict behaviorism.
The cognitive revolution was also fueled by developments outside of psychology, notably in the fields of
linguistics and artificial intelligence (AI). The linguist
Noam Chomsky’s famous critique of B. F. Skinner’s Verbal
Behavior stands out to many as a critical event. Skinner, the
leading behaviorist researcher of his era, attempted to
provide an explanation of language strictly in terms of
environmental input. Chomsky argued that behaviorist
principles are inadequate to explain human verbal behavior,
because language acquisition does not seem to develop as a
function of the environmental conditions that are presented
to the learner. Chomsky cited evidence of children’s rapid
language learning, and of people’s ability to create and
comprehend entirely novel expressions. Chomsky argued
that the external conditions are too impoverished to support such learning, and posited universal, innate language
abilities. While Chomsky’s arguments did not settle the
issue on language learning, they did, in the eyes of many,
serve to defeat the purely behaviorist account.
Fueled by post-World War II interests in advancing
science and technology, the field of AI flourished in the
1950s and 1960s, and played a crucial role in the rise
of cognitivism. The birth of AI can be traced back to
1956, when an influential conference on AI was held at
Dartmouth College (Miller, 2003). Attendees included
John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Herbert Simon, and
Allen Newell, each of whom became leading figures in AI
and cognitive-science research for decades to come. AI labs
around the United States began producing computer programs that were capable of carrying out tasks that were
previously believed to require the highest human intellect,
such as solving complex logic and math problems. The new
synergy between computer science and psychology was
apparent not only in the tasks that computers were programmed to perform, but also in how they carried these
tasks out. For example, McCarthy’s L …
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