Answer & Explanation:Read
Chapter 2 (will be attached) of our text regarding gender roles. Educational psychology
provides teachers with an understanding of how boys and girls are wired
differently, although it is cautioned not to make any generalizations
because these differences are not always exhibited. It is also important
for us to examine our own preconceived judgments about particular
gender roles because we could unknowingly influence our students into
stereotypical gender roles.
Explain a time when you might have either felt or observed gender stereotyping. Use the text to support your response.
How did it make you feel? How have gender schemas influenced your role in society? How will you as a teacher ensure that you are not adhering to gender roles and stereotyping in your own classroom?
chapter_2.docx
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Chapter 2
2.: Gender Roles
Our gender role stereotypes are often remarkably mistaken.
My parents knew that they could make stunningly accurate predictions based on my gender.
They knew that if I were a boy, which I was, I would be fast and strong and tough and just a little
aggressive (it’s not a bad thing in this dog-eat-dog world, you know). And if I were a girl, well,
I’d be gentler and more emotional and not nearly so aggressive, and I’d want to help out in the
house, but no way would I be interested in chopping wood or becoming a great scientist or a
computer programmer.
My parents were heir to a vast body of beliefs dealing with the most likely characteristics
associated with gender. These characteristics define gender roles (also called sex roles). There
are masculine roles and feminine roles, and all societies seem to have relatively clear ideas of
what these should be. They are manifested in culture-specific stereotypes that describe the
behaviors, personality characteristics, and attitudes that a culture finds appropriate for each sex.
Learning the behaviors that correspond to one’s gender is called gender typing (or sex typing).
Gender stereotypes are not always wrong, based as they are on actual experiences with males and
females. That there should be a smidgen of truth in our preconceived notions of male–female
differences should hardly be surprising. At the same time, however, we need to keep in mind that
stereotypes are typically vast oversimplifications and that, especially when they are wrong, they
LeFrançois, G. (2011). Psychology for teaching (11th ed.). San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint
Education, Inc.
Chapter 2
can be grossly unfair. Teachers need to be especially vigilant about stereotypes; they need to be
carefully examined.
Development of Gender Roles
As for all aspects of human development, there are two main influences on the development of
gender roles: the environment, evident in the social pressures and models that lead children to
adopt male or female roles; and genetics, whose influence is related to our different biological
makeup. (See Table 2.1 for definitions of important terms in the study of development.)
Table 2.1: Human Development: Definitions
The science that studies human behavior and thought.
Psychology
Division of psychology concerned with changes that occur over time and
Developmental
with the processes and influences that account for these changes.
Psychology
Development includes:
Physical changes such as increases in height and weight.
Growth
Naturally unfolding changes, relatively independent of experience (for
example, pubescence—the changes of adolescence that lead to sexual
Maturation
maturity).
Relatively permanent changes in behavior or in potential for behavior
Learning
that result from experience.
Social Pressures and Models
In most societies, the roles of men and women are different. In many, though not all, women are
more responsible for looking after children and men are more responsible for producing income.
These different social roles, explain Eagly, Wood, and Johannessen-Schmidt (2005), inevitably
lead to sex differences in expectations and behavior and, consequently, in gender stereotypes.
That’s because these roles constrain the individual, in a sense, forcing the adoption of nurturing
behaviors by women and the adoption of more assertive behaviors by men who are forced to
compete in the sometimes more vicious work world. In societies where these social roles are
clear, it’s hardly surprising that caring and nurturing should be seen as feminine traits and that
assertiveness and competitiveness should be considered masculine traits.
It follows from this social role theory of gender typing that a change in the roles of men and
women would eventually result in a change in gender roles and in gender stereotypes. Thus,
dramatic changes in college enrollment patterns in North America, as well as in occupational
patterns, coupled with the fact that far fewer women now carry out the role of traditional
homemaker, may lead to very different conceptions of gender and gender roles in the future.
Consider, for example, that in 1960, for every 10 males who graduated from college, only 6
females did likewise (Figure 2.1) Now, around 60 percent of college graduates are women (U.S.
Bureau of the Census, 2009).
LeFrançois, G. (2011). Psychology for teaching (11th ed.). San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint
Education, Inc.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1
Increase in ratio of female to male college graduates in the United States from 1960 to 2009.
Still, however, there are a large number of occupations that are traditionally male rather than
female, where fewer than 25 percent of jobs are held by women. In Lippa’s (2005b) survey of
occupational preferences of 4,749 men and women, he found that the men typically preferred
three categories of occupations: “blue-collar realistic” (carpenter; plumber), “educated realistic”
(electrical engineer), and “flashy, risk-taking” (jet pilot). Women preferred occupations such as
“fashion related” (fashion model), “artistic” (author), “helping” (social worker), and “children
related” (child-care center) (See Table 2.2.) Female occupations, even for college-educated
women, also tend to be lower-paying than the occupations of comparably educated men (Figure
2.2).
Table 2.2: Sample of Nontraditional Occupations for Women
detectives
architects
chefs
LeFrançois, G. (2011). Psychology for teaching (11th ed.). San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint
Education, Inc.
Chapter 2
barbers
clergy
computer and office machine repairers
construction and building inspectors
railroad conductors
machinists
truck drivers
fire fighters
aircraft pilots
construction occupations
small-engine mechanics
A few of the more than 100 occupations that are nontraditional for women according to
the U.S. Department of Labor. Fewer than 25 percent of individuals involved in these
occupations are female.
United States Department of Labor. Quick Facts on Nontraditional Occupations for
Women. Retreived June 27, 2010.
Figure 2.2
LeFrançois, G. (2011). Psychology for teaching (11th ed.). San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint
Education, Inc.
Chapter 2
Exactly how the different social roles of boys and girls translate into the characteristics that make
up masculinity and femininity is not entirely clear. One explanation is gender schema theory.
According to this theory, the child begins with no understanding of the nature of gender—no
notion of what is called basic gender identity. But notions of gender identity appear even within
the first year of life when infants begin to develop what researchers label gender schemas—
notions about what male and female mean and what the characteristics of each are. Children can
correctly label people as “man” or “woman,” “boy” or “girl,” almost as soon as they can talk, and
they can also predict the sorts of activities in which each is most likely to engage.
Parents tend to exert an enormously important influence on the development of gender role in
their children (Roest, Dubas, & Gerris, 2010). Not only do they typically provide them with what
are considered sex-appropriate toys and encourage gender-appropriate behaviors, but they also
communicate their own gender biases and stereotypes. For example, research indicates that,
among other things, North American parents typically think that boys find math more interesting
and easier than do girls (Jacobs et al., 2005). Children may well internalize this and many of the
subtle messages parents send out regarding gender and regarding what is expected and
appropriate for boys and girls.
LeFrançois, G. (2011). Psychology for teaching (11th ed.). San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint
Education, Inc.
Chapter 2
Once children have begun to develop gender schemas, these act as powerful constraints on their
behavior. Because boys aren’t supposed to cry, Robert bites his lip and tries hard to hold back his
tears; because girls aren’t supposed to like playing with boys’ things, Elizabeth tries to ignore her
brother’s gleaming red fire truck.
Biological Influences
As we noted, biology also contributes to the development of gender roles. Biology, after all,
determines whether we are male or female. And there are strong indications that some male–
female personality differences may have physiological roots. For example, there are anatomical
differences between male and female brains, both in terms of size and function. Men’s brains are,
on average, larger than those of women; structures that are linked with sex and aggression are
more developed among men; women tend to have relatively more gray matter; and men, more
white matter (Luders et al., 2009; Perrin et al., 2009). Also, the part of the lobe associated with
spatial relations and mathematics is more developed in males, whereas the areas of the frontal
and temporal lobes linked with language are more developed in women (Sabbatini, 2010).
Hormones are another physiological factor thought to be closely involved in the development of
gender. When children are exposed prenatally to male or female hormones, their behaviors may
subsequently appear to be more masculine or feminine than might otherwise have been expected
(Ehrhardt et al., 2007). Thus, females exposed to male sex hormones tend to be somewhat more
aggressive.
Gender Differences
Parents, children, and society in general assume that there are important differences between
males and females in their different gender roles. But just how real and important are these
differences?
Following an early review of research on gender differences, Maccoby and Jacklin (1974)
suggested four areas in which gender differences are significant: (1) verbal ability, particularly in
the early grades, favoring females; (2) mathematical ability, favoring males; (3) spatial-visual
ability (evident in geographic orientation, for example), favoring males; and (4) aggression
(lower among females).
But many of these differences no longer seem as clear now as they did in 1974. There is
mounting evidence that when early experiences are similar, there are few significant male–
female differences (Strand, 2010). Furthermore, even when differences are found, they tend to be
modest and far from universal. Still, to the extent that there might be predictable differences in
school-related areas, such as verbal ability and science and mathematical achievement, these
differences can be important for teachers.
Verbal Ability
Differences in verbal ability are not always apparent and are usually quite small, but almost
invariably favor girls. In most comparisons that have looked at specific skills, such as those
LeFrançois, G. (2011). Psychology for teaching (11th ed.). San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint
Education, Inc.
Chapter 2
involved in spelling, verbal fluency, and verbal composition, girls tend to perform better than
boys. Differences are most significant when the tests include writing samples (Halpern et al.,
2007).
Mathematics, Science, and Visuospatial Abilities
On average, boys tend to do better than girls on measures of mathematical skills (CollegeBoard
SAT, 2010). They also typically do better in sciences such as physics and chemistry, which are
heavily dependent on mathematical and visuospatial abilities (evident in tasks involving mentally
rotating objects, map orientation, way-finding, and geographical knowledge) (Halpern & Collaer,
2005). Males are also more variable than females on most tests (Halpern, 2007). That is, more
males are at the highest and at the lowest levels.
There are clear differences in the physical abilities of average men and women. That there are
important and significant differences in personality and intellectual traits is not so clear and has
led to a number of unfortunate and misleading stereotypes.
Physical Abilities
Some of the physical differences between boys and girls are clear and not especially
controversial. On average, males are taller and heavier than females throughout life except for a
short period during pubescence when girls’ earlier maturation gives them a short-lived advantage
in height and weight.
That these differences in height and weight should be reflected in different physical abilities is
not especially surprising. Males tend to perform better than females in activities requiring
strength and stamina. As a result, males can throw objects further, lift heavier weights, run faster,
throw farther, jump higher, do more sit-ups, and more effectively fend off cantankerous bears.
LeFrançois, G. (2011). Psychology for teaching (11th ed.). San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint
Education, Inc.
Chapter 2
On the other hand, women have better eye-hand coordination than men, are more flexible, and do
better at rhythmic tasks such as hopscotch and dancing (Lippa, 2005a).
The Implications of Gender Roles for Teaching
Stereotypes about the different abilities and interests of boys and girls may well lead teachers to
treat them differently and to expect them to perform differently. Hence, it is extremely important
for teachers to keep in mind that many apparent gender differences are trivial or even
nonexistent. Teachers need to be aware of—and work to eliminate—the many subtle instances of
sex bias that still permeate our attitudes, our books, our schools, and our society. See the case
“And for Noon Detention, Here Is the List…” for examples of still common gender inequities in
three areas.
Cases from the Classroom: And for Noon Detention, Here Is the List…
The Time: Early morning at Wes Horman School
The Place: Ms. Fenna’s fifth-grade class
Morning messages are just ending on the intercom. “And,” says Mr. Sawchuk, school principal,
“for noon detention in Mr. Klein’s office, the list is Ronald West, Juan González, Eddie Mio, and
Eddie Nyberg . . . and I hope there won’t be any more by noon.”*
Ms. Fenna: You heard that, Ronald?
Ronald nods.
“Also,” continues Mr. Sawchuk, “grade sixers who aren’t going on the field trip: the boys will
spend the day in Mr. Klein’s phys ed classes, and the girls will go to the art room. . . . That’s all.”
Ms. Fenna: Now, class, I want you to open your math workbooks to page 34, which we started
yesterday, and finish the assignment on that page before we go on.
Tom Larsen: I finished mine. What can I do now?
Ms. Fenna: I’ll come check it in a minute.
Rosa Donner: Me too.
Ms. Fenna: In this class, we raise our hand, Rosa.
Teddy Langevin: Can we read our Tom Sawyers if we’re finished?
Ms. Fenna: How many are finished with page 34?
*Note that the principal’s reading the names of detention students over an intercom system is not
a highly recommended school management behavior. (See Chapter 9.)
LeFrançois, G. (2011). Psychology for teaching (11th ed.). San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint
Education, Inc.
Chapter 2
1. At Wes Horman School, as in many other schools, there is evidence of gender inequity in
the administration. The principal and vice principal are both male; the majority of
teachers are female. As Figure 2.3 shows, the proportion of female to male teachers has
been increasing so that about 3 of every 4 teachers are now female. Yet almost half of all
principals are male. But that proportion, too, is declining.
Figure 2.3
Declining ratio of male to female teachers in U.S. elementary and secondary schools.
LeFrançois, G. (2011). Psychology for teaching (11th ed.). San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint
Education, Inc.
Chapter 2
Based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Educational Sciences,
U.S. Department of Education, 2008.
Figure 2.4
Declining proportion of male principals in elementary and secondary schools.
Based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Educational Sciences,
U.S. Department of Education, 2007.
2. There is inequity, as well, in the treatment of students. When Tom and Teddy called out,
Ms. Fenna responded to them directly. But when Rosa echoed Tom, Ms. Fenna
reprimanded her: “In this class, we raise our hand,” she said.
Is this unusual? No. At virtually all educational levels, teachers interact more with male
students than with female students: Boys receive more instructional time, more attention,
LeFrançois, G. (2011). Psychology for teaching (11th ed.). San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint
Education, Inc.
Chapter 2
even more praise and encouragement (Sadker & Sadker, 1986). And, like the detainees at
Wes Horman School, they are also more often reprimanded and punished.
3. Gender inequities are also apparent in the sexual stereotypes still found in books, in the
curriculum, in classroom examples, and elsewhere. At Wes Horman School, boys who
need looking after because they did not go on a field trip are sent to gym classes; girls are
sent to the art room. And for those who have finished their arithmetic, the reading
assignment is Tom Sawyer. Although “male hero” books are no longer as pervasive in
schools as they once were, boys are often portrayed as more dominant and girls as more
helpless.
It isn’t sufficient simply to know that schools reflect much of the racism, sexism, and other
prejudices of our society. Teachers (and principals) need to be on guard constantly lest they
unconsciously propagate the same stereotypes and inequities. In the United States, gender equity
is mandated by laws that prohibit discrimination by sex in any federally funded educational
program. But this doesn’t mean that all inequities have been wiped out. There is still much to be
done.
2.2: Personality Development: Erik Erikson
Gender is one very important aspect of our personality. But personality is much more than or
notions of being male or female and related attitudes and interests. Personality includes all of the
abilities, predispositions, habits, and other qualities that make each of us different from every
other person.
Exactly how personality develops—for example, the extent to which personality characteristics
are innate or result from our experiences—is not entirely certain. But one highly useful theory of
personality development for teachers is that of Erik Erikson.
Much of Erikson’s theory was inspired by Sigmund Freud. But whereas Freud’s theory
highlighted the importance of sexuality and sexual conflicts in human development, Erikson
emphasizes the importance of the child’s social environment. The result is a theory of
psychosocial rather than psychosexual development. The major emphasis in Erikson’s theory is
on the development of a healthy self-concept, or identity to use his term.
Psychosocial Stages in Childhood and Adolescence
Psychosocial development, says Erikson, can be described in terms of eight stages, the first five
of which span infancy, childhood, and adolescence; the last three occur in adulthood. Each stage
involves a conflict brought about mainly by a person’s need to adapt to the social environment.
And because the demands of a given environment tend to be much the same for all individuals
within that culture, we tend to experience the same problems and conflicts at about the same
ages—hence the notion of stages.
Trust versus Mistrust
LeFrançois, G. (2011). Psychology for teaching (11th ed.). San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint
Education, Inc.
Chapter 2
For example, for infants to adapt to an initially complex and largely bewildering world, they
have to learn to trust the world. Doing so, explains Erikson, is highly dependent on the
consistency and care with which caregivers meet the infant’s needs for drink, food, warmth, and
comfort. Should caregiving be haphazard and unreliable, the infant becomes mistrustful. Hence,
the basic psychosocial conflict is one of trust versus mistrust. Resolving the conflict results in a
sense of competence and enables infants to continue to develop and grow. In Erikson’s words,
“The infant’s first social achievement is his willingness to let the mother out of sight without
undue an …
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